Lighting in practice

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Lighting Fundamentals

Spectral sensitivity of the eye

The sensitivity of the eye is not uniform over the visible spectrum, but varies with wavelength.� The spectral sensitivity is shown in the V(l) curve, with maximum sensitivity at 555nm.� There are three types of vision; photopic, scotopic and mesopic, which correspond to how the eye reacts under different luminance levels

Photopic vision

This is in effect when the surroundings have luminances of greater then 10 cdm^-2.� Vision is mediated entirely by the cone receptors, and is maximal in the blue-green end of the spectrum.

Scoptopic vision

This comes into operation when the luminance is less than 10^-2 cdm^-2 and they eye has had time to become dark adapted (typically around 30 minutes).� The spectral sensitivity curve for this, V ^�(l), is represented by a shift towards the blue end of the spectrum with maximal sensitivity at 507nm.� Since this mode of vision is mediated by the rod detectors, you have equal sensitity over the entire vsual field, and it is quite lke you see things �out of the corner of your eye�.� Unlike cones, rod detectors do not detect colour, and the scotopic view of the world is monochromatic.

Mesopic vision

In the intermediate range, three effects can be noted, in addition to a general increase in luminance;

� foveal detection becomes as easy as peripheral detection, and then easier

� a sense of colour can be appreciated

� the relative luminosity of different colours change;� in particular the luminosity of the eds increase more strongly than the blues.

The overall response of the eye lies some w(ere between V(l) and V ^�(l), moving from left to right, as the general luminance increases.

Basic Definitions

Luminous Flux,F;

The total visible light energy emitted by a source per unit time.�

Unit - Lumens (lm)

One lumen is by definition equal to 1/673W at the wavelength l=555nm where the eye has its maximum sensitivity.

Luminous Intensity,I;

The luminous flux from a source, F, in a specified direction inside a small solid angle,w.

Unit: lumen per steradian or candela (cd)

Illuminance, E;

The amount of luminous flux, F, incident per unit area of surface, A.

Unit: lumen pr square metre of lux (lx)

Luminance, L;

The intensity, I_u, per apparent unit area of the surface of the actual light source.

Unit: candela per square metre (cdm^-2)

Reflectance,r;

The ratio of reflected flux to incident flux (either luminous or radiant)

DERIVATION ???

Perfect Diffuse Reflector

This is a surface for which the luminance is independant of the angle of view.

Light Output Ratio

The ratio of the light output of a luminaire to the sum of the light outputs of the lamps it contains.

Luminous Efficacy, h;

For a light source with a total power input W watts the luminous efficacy, denoted by h_V, is given by

where F_V is the total light output of the source.

Unit: lumen per Watt ( lmW^-1)

Typical Efficacys:

GLS 9-20; TuHa 15-5; MCF 40-75; MBF 40-60; MBI 60-90; SOX 130-180; SON 95-130

L01(3). Fundamentals II - Propagation of Light

Methods of light emission (L&L pp. 101)

Light can be seen as either a wave or a particle.� It is a form of electromagnetic radiation, and is generally involved in the transfer of energy between particles.� There are many forms of energy transfer which emit light. Generally distinguished by the source of the input energy.

Incandescence Solids and liquids emit visible radiation when hey are heated to temperatures about 1000K.� The intensity increases and the appearance becomes whiter as the temperature increases.

Electric Discharge When an electric current is passed through a gas the atoms and molecules emit radiation whose spectrum is characteristic of the elements present.

Electroluminescence� Light is generated when electric current is passed through certain solids such as semiconductor or phosphor materials.

Photoluminescence� Radiation at one wavelength is absorbed, usually by a solid, and re-emitted at a different wavelength.� When the re-emitted radiation is visible the phenomenon may be termed either fluorescence or phosphorescence.

Generation of radiation (L&L pp. 102)

Quantum physics says that the outermost electron in a an atom may have one of discrete energies. Normally it resides in the state of lowest energy, or ground state.� When it absorbs energy, it is exited, and jumps to a higher energy state.� Eventually it is de-excited, and falls back to the ground state, emitting energy in the form of a photon.� The frequency of the light is given by Planck�s equation;

where

Q = difference in energy between the levels

= Planck�s Constant (6.6626176 x 10^-34 Js)

v = frequency of light radiated

Thermal radiation

When a body is heated to a high temperature its constituent atoms become excited by numerous interactions between them and energy is radiated in a continuous spectrum.� The continuous spectrum arises because the energy levels of the electrons in solids are broadened to the point of merging in a continuous band.� Thermodynamics have defined a perfect black body or full radiator.� By definition, a black body absorbs all energy falling upon it, provided it is held at a constant temperature.� Only a few materials such as carbon black and platinum black approach this ideal in reality.�

Planck also derived a relationship for the spectral distribution of thermal radiation for a full radiator;

where �is the spectral radiant exitance (Wm^-3)

DIAGRAM ???

The maximal radiant exitance increases with temperature, and the wavelength at maximum power is inversely proportional to the temperature T. This is known as Wiens Displacement Law;

This law corresponds to the observation that a heated body first glows red, then yellow, and the bluish.

The total radiant exitance of a black body surface is found by integrating �over all wavelengths.� The result is suprisingly simple, known as the Stefan-Boltzmann law;

where s is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant.

Propagation of Light (L&L pp. 4-8)

Light as a wave travel through vacuums at a constant velocity, approx. 3 x 10⁸ ms^-1.� In a material medium e.g. air or glass, velocity of propagation is less than in a vacuum by a factor known as the Refractive Index.

Refraction

Light passing through a smooth boundary surface into the second medium suffers a change of direction according to the following laws;

� The incident ray, the refracted ray, and the perpendicular to the surface at the point of incidence all lie in one plane

� If the incident ray is in a medium of refractive index n₁ and makes an angle q₁ with the perpendicular to the surface, and the refracted ray is in a medium of refractive index n₂ and makes an angle q₂ with the perpendicular, then;

���� where q₁ and q₂ lie on opposite sides of the perpendicular (Snell�s Law).

When a ray passes from a high to a low refractive index material, such as glass to air, a refracted ray exists only if q₁ is less than the critical angle, which is equal to .

If the ray is incident at an angle greater than the critical angle, no refracted ray is present and all of the incident light energy appears in the reflected ray; the term total reflection is used for this condition.

Reflection

At a bounding surface that is smooth compared with the wavelength of the incident light, specular reflection is said to occur.� A single incident ray produces a single reflected ray and the following relations occur;

� the incident ray, the reflected ray and the perpendicular to the bounding surface at the point of incidence all lie on one plane

� the incident ray and the reflected ray make equal angles with the perpendicular and are on opposite sides of it.

Reflection is the main way of directing light inside a luminaire.

Absorption and Scattering

A light ray passing through a vacuum loses no energy, although the energy make become more spread out.� In their progression through material media however, light usually loses energy through absorption and scattering effects.

Absorption is caused by the conversion of light into some other form of energy, usually heat, but it could be changed into radiation of a different wavelenth (fluorescence), into electrical energy in a photocell, or chemical energy as in the photosynthesis that occurs in plants.

MORE ???

Scattering occurs in non-homogeneous media and is caused by multiple refraction and reflection at numerous, randomly oriented, boundary surfaces within the media.� Fog and cloud are examples of scattering conditions in air due to the presence of suspended water droplets.� Scattering can be wavelength selective due to a contribution from diffracting light, and this can also impart colour onto a media.� All material media scatter light to some extent because of the molecular structure of matter.� Scattering by very small particles, such as molecules, is greater for the shorter wavelengths of light; the blue sky is accounted for in this way.

Diffuse Reflectance and transmission; cosine diffusers

When a light ray meets a surface which has irregularities comparable with or greater than the wavelength of incident light there is no longer a single reflected or refracted ray, but the light spreads out in all directions from the point of incidence, as in scattering.� The light which returns to the medium from which the incident ray emerged is said to be diffusely reflected and the light which passes through into to the second medium is said to be diffusely refracted.

In general the precise angular distribution of the reflected and tramitted light depends on the angle of incidence and of the nature of the surface.� With very fine grained roughness the reflection may almost be specular at angles of incidence approaching 90^o.


Uniform Diffuser In order to allow for simple calculations to be made, the concept of a uniform or cosine diffuser is often used.� A uniform diffuser is one in which the reflected light distribution is independant of the angle of the incident light, and the intensity of the reflected light in a direction making an angle q with the perpendicular to the surface is proportional cos q. This is also known as a Lambertian Reflector.� No real surface completely satisfies the conditions for a uniform diffuser, but some surfaces make a good approximation, for example a layer of magnesium oxide powder.

Inverse square and cosine laws of illumination (L&L pp. 15)

We consider a point source, S, illuminating a plane surface, P.� We know the illuminance on a small area dA, illuminated by a luminous flux dF is

Similarly, the luminous Intensity I is given by

where dw is the angle subtended by the element dA at the source.�

The illuminance produced at a point source at a distance r from a plane is obtained by first eliminating dF from the above two equations to give;

�

and since

substituting for dw gives

This expresses both the inverse square and cosine laws of illumination from a point source.

Luminance(L&L pp.15)

Luminance is related to the sensation of brightness, although the two are not equal.� The concept of luminance can be applied to any surface which is emitting or reflecting light, and can be generalized to include any imaginary surface in space through which light is passing, e.g. a portion of the sky.� It can be shown that the luminance of any such surface in a non-emitting, non-absorbing, and non-scattering medium is constant along a ray passing through the surface.� In less formal terms, this corresponds to the observation that in clear air the brightness of a surface does not depend on its distance from the observer.�

A uniform diffuse source is one which has the same luminance over its entire surface for all viewing directions.

An element of area A emitting a total flux F in all directions (i.e. over a solid angle of 2p sr) has a luminous exitance given by

For a unform dif

Emergency Lighting Regulations

The Building Regulations 2000

These regulations detail the design and construction characteristics of a

building. Approved Document B details the fire safety requirements for new
buildings and the major refurbishment of existing premises. Table 9 of this
document shows the locations that must be provided with emergency lighting.
It now defines that in addition to escape routes, all open areas larger than
60m² must be illuminated in the event of the failure of the normal lighting
supply.

It also clarifies that emergency lighting is needed for all parts of
schools that either do not have natural light or are used outside normal school
hours. The regulations require that systems comply with BS 5266-1, the code
of practice for emergency lighting.
The Fire Precautions (Workplace) Regulations 1997

This directive controls the way that the building will be used and the

equipment and systems needed to safeguard the occupants. The legal
requirement is that - “Emergency routes and exits requiring illumination must
be provided with emergency lighting of adequate intensity in case the lighting
fails”. The law is explained and the rules for compliance are given in a joint
Home Office and Health & Safety Executive document - “FIRE SAFETY - An
employer’s guide”. Main points from the guide are:

• The employer has legal responsibility for compliance

• Although the legislation uses and modifies the Fire Precautions Act

1971, it now covers all premises where people are employed

• Any site with five or more employees must keep a formal record of Fire

Risk Assessment. This should evaluate the site and detail the
measures taken to ensure the safety of the premises

• If the premises already have a fire certificate to the latest standards the

employer still needs to provide a risk assessment, but it is unlikely that
they will need any additional equipment. If however the fire certificate
was issued prior to 1999, when BS 5266-1 was revised, the risk
assessment needs to check whether improvements are needed to
meet the latest standard

• The evaluation of areas with a fire risk assists when deciding which

areas need protection, e.g. a school chemical laboratory may be
smaller than 60m² but still need emergency lighting, as combustible
materials and sources of ignition would be present.

• The assessment of the location of employees and any visitors to the

site assist in determining the most appropriate escape routes.

• The guidance to the directive gives detailed requirements for the

suitability of escape routes and calls for the installation of emergency

lighting to be in accordance with BS 5266-1

• It recommends that advice on the installation should be given by a

competent person who specialises in emergency lighting systems.

• Continued maintenance and testing must be correctly carried out, to

comply with the directive.

• The equipment used must be capable of being demonstrated as of

adequate quality. Compliance with the appropriate British Standard, or
other approved third party scheme, gives evidence of this. The
standard for luminaries is BS EN 60598-2-22. ICEL 1001 registration
endorses the spacing data of these luminaries. The standard for central
battery systems is BS EN 50171

Note: When the premises are being assessed for risk, shortcomings in other

areas of fire protection can be compensated for by improved levels of
emergency lighting and fire alarms.

Compliance with BS5266-1:1999 is deemed to comply with these

requirements

The Health and Safety (Safety Signs and Signals) Regulations 1996

This regulation requires the adequate provision of signs protected by

emergency lighting. It details that signs should be located at all final exits and
also on the escape routes at any location where the route may be in doubt.

Other Requirements

In addition to fire safety legislation, some workplaces require a licence from

the Local Authority, including theatres and cinemas, sport stadiums and
premises for public entertainment, music, dancing, gambling and the sale of
alcohol. Other premises must be registered with the Local Authority and be
inspected by the Fire Authority, including nursing homes, children's homes,
residential care homes and independent schools. Both licensed and
registered premises have to pass a fire inspection to confirm that they have
systems complying with BS 5266-1 for the emergency lighting and BS 5839
for fire equipment. Records of a system are now essential to maintain the

validity of approvals and licences.

Emergency Lighting - System Design

This section provides guidance on system design to meet BS 5266 Parts 1

and 7: 1999 and so achieve compliance with legislation.

Design Objective

BS 5266, when referring to the provision of Escape Lighting in section 4.2,

requires that when the supply to all or part of the normal lighting in occupied
premises fails, escape lighting is required to fulfil the following function:

(a) To indicate clearly and unambiguously the escape routes.

(b) To provide illumination along such routes to allow safe movement towards

and through the exits provided.

(c) To ensure that fire alarm call points and fire fighting equipment provided

along escape routes can be readily located.

(d) To permit operations concerned with safety measures.

BS 5266-1 recommends that discussions should be held prior to commencing
the design, to establish the areas to be covered, the method of operation, the
testing regime and the most suitable type of system. These discussions
should include the owner or occupier of the premises, the system designer,
the installer, the supplier of the equipment and the fire authority.

Note: BS5266 will be revised during 2004 following the publication of

EN50172. Visit the British Standards Institute website, at

www.bsi-global.com

for the latest information.

TESTING AND LOG BOOK

The Fire Precautions (Workplace) Regulations 1997 require that appropriate

testing is performed to maintain compliance of the system. The system should
include adequate facilities for testing and recording the system condition.

These need to be appropriate for the specific site and should be considered

as part of the system design. Discussions with the user or system designer
should identify:

- The calibre and reliability of staff available to do the testing

- The level of difficulty in performing the test

- If discharge tests need to be done outside normal working hours, or phased

so only alternate luminaires are tested in buildings that are permanently
occupied

The testing requirements in the code of practice are:

• Function test

All emergency luminaires should be tested be breaking the supply to them
and checking that they operate satisfactorily.
The supply must then be restored and the charging indicators must be seen to
be operating correctly. This test must be performed at least once per month
and the results logged

• Discharge test

The luminaires must be tested for their full rated duration period and checked

for satisfactory operation. The supply must then be restored and the charging
indicators rechecked. This test must be performed at least annually and the
results logged

Note: BS 5266-1: 1999 allows a one hour test to be performed as an

alternative every six months for the first 3 years of the system, but the
guidance document to the Fire Precaution Regulations calls for the annual
test at all stages of equipment life.

MANUAL TESTING

If manual testing is utilised, the following points should be considered:

• Is a single switch to be used? Unless the whole building is to be

switched off, a separate switch should be used for each final circuit. As
the feed to non-maintained circuits must be taken from the switch this
will probably mean that the building will have to be walked around
twice, once to check the luminaires and once to check that they are
recharging

• Are luminaires to be individually switched? In practice, only a single

walk around the building will be needed. However, the test switches
could spoil the décor of the building and they must be of a type that is
tamper proof.

• After the tests, the performance of the luminaires must be logged.

COMMISSIONING CERTIFICATE

BS5266 Pt 1: 1999 and the European Standard both require written

declarations of compliance to be available on site for inspection. These
consist of:

• Installation quality.

IEE regulations must have been conformed with and non-maintained
fittings fed from the final circuit of the normal lighting in each, as
required in BS 5266

• Photometric performance.

Evidence of compliance with light levels has to be supplied by the
system designer. Photometric tests for Cooper Lighting and Security
luminaires are performed at BSI and spacing data is registered by the
ICEL scheme. Therefore copies of the spacing data in this catalogue
provide the verification required.

• Declaration of a satisfactory test of operation.

A log of all system tests and results must be maintained. System log
books, with commissioning forms, testing forms and instructions are
available from Cooper Lighting and Security.

MAINTENANCE

Finally, to ensure that the system remains at full operational status, essential

servicing should be defined. This normally would be performed as part of the
testing routine, but in the case of consumable items such as replacement
lamps, spares should be provided for immediate use.